The narrative that Captain James Cook’s voyages to Polynesia in the late 18th century introduced tattooing to the West is a pervasive myth. While these voyages undoubtedly amplified the visibility of tattoos in Western culture, they were far from the genesis of Western Tattoo. This article delves into the real history of western tattoo, debunking the “Cook Myth” and revealing the long and rich tradition of body marking within Western societies, predating Cook’s expeditions by centuries.
Challenging the “Cook Myth” in Western Tattoo History
For decades, a common misconception has dominated discussions about the history of western tattoo: that modern tattooing in the West originated with Captain Cook and his crew’s encounters with Polynesian tattooing. This “Cook Myth” suggests that before Cook’s voyages, tattooing was either absent or insignificant in the West, only to be “reintroduced” or “rediscovered” through Polynesian influence.
However, this viewpoint overlooks a substantial body of historical evidence. As explored in depth in academic research, including my own dissertation, Tattooed Transculturites: Western Expatriates Among Amerindian and Pacific Islander Societies, 1500-1900, the roots of western tattoo are far more complex and deeply embedded in Western history than this simplistic narrative suggests.
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Sydney Parkinson’s Illustration: A Maori man adorned with traditional tattoos, captured during Captain Cook’s initial voyage to New Zealand. This image, while significant in popularizing Polynesian tattoo art in the West, incorrectly overshadows the pre-existing history of western tattooing.
Pre-Cook Evidence: European Familiarity with Tattooing
Even during Cook’s era, informed observers recognized that tattooing was not a novel practice brought back from the Pacific. Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu, a contemporary explorer, noted in 1791 the similarities and differences between Marquesan tattooing and European tattooing. He asserted that European tattooing was not only common but also ancient, particularly among Mediterranean sailors from regions like Catalonia, France, Italy, and Malta. These sailors, Fleurieu explained, had long practiced tattooing, creating indelible images of religious symbols like crucifixes and Madonnas, or personal identifiers like their names and the names of loved ones.
This observation underscores a crucial point: western tattoo was not a foreign import but a continuous, albeit evolving, practice within Western culture. It was a tradition that waxed and waned in popularity, adapted to different social groups and purposes over time, encompassing national, religious, and occupational identities.
The Linguistic Misdirection: “Tattoo” and Polynesian Origins
A significant factor contributing to the “Cook Myth” is linguistic. The modern English word “tattoo” and its counterparts in other Western languages are derived from the Tahitian word “tatau.” This Polynesian etymology has led many, including some scholars, to mistakenly assume that the practice itself is also of Polynesian origin in the Western context.
The anthropologist Alfred Gell, for instance, incorrectly argued that western tattoo originated from European expansion into the Pacific due to the Polynesian origin of the word “tattoo.” However, the adoption of the word “tattoo” to describe the practice does not equate to the practice itself being newly introduced. Before “tattoo” became the standard term, Europeans used a variety of descriptive terms to refer to body marking, such as “pricked,” “marked,” “engraved,” “punctured,” “stained,” or “embroidered” skin. These processes resulted in “black marks,” “pictures,” “paintings,” “engravings,” and “stains,” described as “permanent” or “indelible.” Latin texts often used “stigmata,” while French texts employed “piquer” and “piquage.” These diverse terms demonstrate that western tattoo, under different names and descriptions, was well-documented in Europe long before Cook’s voyages.
Continuity and Evolution of Western Tattoo Practices
Cook’s voyages and the subsequent dissemination of images and accounts of Polynesian tattooing undeniably increased the visibility of tattoos among Europeans. The burgeoning print culture of the time amplified these depictions, creating an impression that tattoos were suddenly more prevalent. However, visibility should not be mistaken for novelty.
While it’s possible that western tattoo practices might have experienced periods of lesser prevalence in Europe between late Antiquity and the Early Modern period, ongoing scholarly research is increasingly revealing evidence to the contrary. My own extensive research in American and British archives has uncovered a wealth of pre-Cook and post-Cook manuscript sources related to western tattoo, far exceeding what could be included in my dissertation. Similarly, a vast amount of evidence exists in published primary and secondary sources across various European languages, pointing to a continuous tradition of western tattoo practices.
The evidence suggests that the acquisition of tattoos by Cook’s crew in Tahiti in 1769 was not a groundbreaking discovery but rather an encounter within a pre-existing, evolving tradition of western tattoo. Sailors and other travelers had long been marking their bodies, and the Pacific voyages simply added a new dimension and style to this ongoing practice.
Refuting Misguided Scholarship: Re-evaluating Western Tattoo Origins
The “Cook Myth” has unfortunately influenced even insightful studies of western tattoo history. For example, while acknowledging the valuable contributions of scholars like Joanna White, it’s crucial to challenge assertions that portray Polynesian tattooing as entirely novel to Western voyagers. White’s analysis, which suggests that the elaborate tattooing encountered in the Pacific was completely new to Westerners, overlooks the pre-existing traditions of western tattoo and the motivations behind body marking among Europeans.
Similarly, historical anthropologist Nicholas Thomas, despite his insightful work on tattoo history, has leaned towards supporting Cook’s voyages as the origin point of modern western tattoo. Thomas points to the perceived scarcity of records of sailor tattoos before 1769 as evidence. However, this argument may be flawed due to a potential over-reliance on English-language sources and a focus on specific types of sailors. As Fleurieu noted, tattooed sailors were common in other European societies before Cook. Furthermore, the increase in surveillance-based record-keeping around Cook’s time might create a false impression of a sudden surge in tattoo visibility.
By considering a broader range of sources, including accounts of various types of travelers beyond long-haul sailors, and acknowledging the documented history of religious, identificatory, and romantic western tattoo, a clearer picture emerges. The tradition of mariners getting tattooed in the Pacific should be understood as an extension of long-standing European practices, not solely as a result of Polynesian influence. While Pacific motifs certainly became integrated into western tattoo, the underlying motivations and practices had deep roots in Western culture itself.
Beyond the Myth: A Richer Understanding of Western Tattoo
Debunking the “Cook Myth” is not merely an academic exercise. It’s crucial for achieving a more accurate and nuanced understanding of western tattoo history and its place within Western culture. By moving beyond this myth, we can appreciate the long and complex evolution of western tattoo, recognizing its diverse forms, motivations, and social contexts throughout history. The story of western tattoo is not one of simple adoption from a foreign culture, but a rich tapestry woven from indigenous European practices, evolving social norms, and cross-cultural exchanges.
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A detailed chart tracing the propagation of the Cook Myth in tattoo history literature. Examining these sources helps to understand how misconceptions about western tattoo origins have been perpetuated over time.
Further Exploration:
To delve deeper into the fascinating history of western tattoo, explore resources that examine pre-Cook European body marking traditions, sailor tattoos throughout history, and the diverse cultural influences that have shaped western tattoo into what it is today. By moving beyond the “Cook Myth,” we can unlock a richer and more authentic understanding of this enduring art form.
(Note: Footnotes from the original article are integrated within the text for readability and flow in this SEO-optimized version.)
